Software Engineering-Transform Mapping

Transform mapping is a set of design steps that allows a DFD with transform flow characteristics to be mapped into a specific architectural...


Transform mapping is a set of design steps that allows a DFD with transform flow characteristics to be mapped into a specific architectural style. In this section transform mapping is described by applying design steps to an example system—a portion of the SafeHome security software.

An Example

The SafeHome security system is representative of many computer-based products and systems in use today. The product monitors the real world and reacts to changes that it encounters. It also interacts with a user through a series of typed inputs and alphanumeric displays. The level 0 data flow diagram for SafeHome, is shown in figure



During requirements analysis, more detailed flow models would be created for SafeHome. In addition, control and process specifications, a data dictionary, and various behavioral models would also be created.

Design Steps

The preceding example will be used to illustrate each step in transform mapping. The steps begin with a re-evaluation of work done during requirements analysis and then move to the design of the software architecture.


Step 1. Review the fundamental system model. The fundamental system model encompasses the level 0 DFD and supporting information. In actuality, the design step begins with an evaluation of both the System Specification and the Software Requirements Specification. Both documents describe information flow and structure at the software interface. Figure 1 and 2  depict level 0 and level 1 data flow for the SafeHome software.


Step 2. Review and refine data flow diagrams for the software. Information obtained from analysis models contained in the Software Requirements Specification is refined to produce greater detail. For example, the level 2 DFD for monitor sensors  is examined, and a level 3 data flow diagram is derived . At level 3, each transform in the data flow diagram exhibits relatively high cohesion. That is, the process implied by a transform performs a single, distinct function that can be implemented as a module9 in the SafeHome software.  Therefore, the DFD in figure  contains sufficient detail for a "first cut" at the design of architecture for the monitor sensors subsystem, and we proceed without further refinement.


Step 3. Determine whether the DFD has transform or transaction flow characteristics. In general, information flow within a system can always be represented as transform. However, when an obvious transaction characteristic  is encountered, a different design mapping is recommended. In this step, the designer selects global (softwarewide) flow characteristics based on the prevailing nature of the DFD. In addition, local regions of transform or transaction flow are isolated. These subflows can be used to refine program architecture derived from a global characteristic described previously. For now, we focus our attention only on the monitor sensors subsystem data flow depicted in figure.


Evaluating the DFD , we see data entering the software along one incoming path and exiting along three outgoing paths. No distinct transaction center is implied (although the transform establishes alarm conditions that could be perceived as such). Therefore, an overall transform characteristic will be assumed for information flow.

Step 4. Isolate the transform center by specifying incoming and outgoing flow boundaries. In the preceding section incoming flow was described as a path in which information is converted from external to internal form; outgoing flow converts from internal to external form. Incoming and outgoing flow boundaries are open to interpretation. That is, different designers may select slightly different points in the flow as boundary locations. In fact, alternative design solutions can be derived by varying the placement of flow boundaries. Although care should be taken when boundaries are selected, a variance of one bubble along a flow path will generally have little impact on the final program structure.

Flow boundaries for the example are illustrated as shaded curves running vertically through the flow in the above figure. The transforms (bubbles) that constitute the transform center lie within the two shaded boundaries that run from top to bottom in the figure. An argument can be made to readjust a boundary (e.g, an incoming flow boundary separating read sensors and acquire response info could be proposed). The emphasis in this design step should be on selecting reasonable boundaries, rather than lengthy iteration on placement of divisions.

Step 5. Perform "first-level factoring." Program structure represents a top-down distribution of control. Factoring results in a program structure in which top-level modules perform decision making and low-level modules perform most input, computation, and output work. Middle-level modules perform some control and do moderate amounts of work.

When transform flow is encountered, a DFD is mapped to a specific structure (a call and return architecture) that provides control for incoming, transform, and outgoing information processing. This first-level factoring for the monitor sensors subsystem is illustrated in figure below. A main controller (called monitor sensors executive) resides at the top of the program structure and coordinates the following subordinate control functions:

An incoming information processing controller, called sensor input controller, coordinates receipt of all incoming data.
A transform flow controller, called alarm conditions controller, supervises all operations on data in internalized form (e.g., a module that invokes various data transformation procedures).
 • An outgoing information processing controller, called alarm output controller,
coordinates production of output information.


Although a three-pronged structure is implied by figure complex flows in large systems may dictate two or more control modules for each of the generic control functions described previously. The number of modules at the first level should be limited to the minimum that can accomplish control functions and still maintain good coupling and cohesion characteristics.

Step 6. Perform "second-level factoring." Second-level factoring is accomplished by mapping individual transforms (bubbles) of a DFD into appropriate modules within the architecture. Beginning at the transform center boundary and moving outward along incoming and then outgoing paths, transforms are mapped into subordinate levels of the software structure. The general approach to second-level factoring for the SafeHome data flow is illustrated in figure.




Although the figure illustrates a one-to-one mapping between DFD transforms and software modules, different mappings frequently occur. Two or even three bubbles can be combined and represented as one module (recalling potential problems with cohesion) or a single bubble may be expanded to two or more modules. Practical considerations and measures of design quality dictate the outcome of secondlevel factoring. Review and refinement may lead to changes in this structure, but it can serve as a "first-iteration" design.

Second-level factoring for incoming flow follows in the same manner. Factoring is again accomplished by moving outward from the transform center boundary on the incoming flow side. The transform center of monitor sensors subsystem software is mapped somewhat differently. Each of the data conversion or calculation transforms of the transform portion of the DFD is mapped into a module subordinate to the transform controller. A completed first-iteration architecture is shown in figure.



The modules mapped in the preceding manner and shown in figure represent an initial design of software architecture. Although modules are named in a manner that implies function, a brief processing narrative (adapted from the PSPEC created during analysis modeling) should be written for each. The narrative describes
Information that passes into and out of the module (an interface description).
Information that is retained by a module, such as data stored in a local data structure.
A procedural narrative that indicates major decision points and tasks.
A brief discussion of restrictions and special features (e.g., file I/O, hardwaredependent characteristics, special timing requirements).
The narrative serves as a first-generation Design Specification. However, further refinement and additions occur regularly during this period of design.

Step 7. Refine the first-iteration architecture using design heuristics for improved software quality. A first-iteration architecture can always be refined by applying concepts of module independence . Modules are exploded or imploded to produce sensible factoring, good cohesion, minimal coupling, and most important, a structure that can be implemented without difficulty, tested without confusion, and maintained without grief.

Refinements are dictated by the analysis and assessment methods described briefly , as well as practical considerations and common sense. There are times, for example, when the controller for incoming data flow is totally unnecessary, when some input processing is required in a module that is subordinate to the transform controller, when high coupling due to global data cannot be avoided, or when
optimal structural characteristics  cannot be achieved. Software requirements coupled with human judgment is the final arbiter. Many modifications can be made to the first iteration architecture developed for the SafeHome monitor sensors subsystem. Among many possibilities,

1. The incoming controller can be removed because it is unnecessary when a single incoming flow path is to be managed.

2. The substructure generated from the transform flow can be imploded into the module establish alarm conditions (which will now include the processing implied by select phone number). The transform controller will not be needed and the small decrease in cohesion is tolerable.

3. The modules format display and generate display can be imploded (we assume that display formatting is quite simple) into a new module called produce display.

The refined software structure for the monitor sensors subsystem is shown in figure.



The objective of the preceding seven steps is to develop an architectural representation of software. That is, once structure is defined, we can evaluate and refine software architecture by viewing it as a whole. Modifications made at this time require little additional work, yet can have a profound impact on software quality.

The reader should pause for a moment and consider the difference between the design approach described and the process of "writing programs." If code is the only representation of software, the developer will have great difficulty evaluating or refining at a global or holistic level and will, in fact, have difficulty "seeing the forest for the trees."
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